How Are Pistons Made Engineering Essay

How Are Pistons Made Engineering Essay There are different ways of doing the pistons and they all aims to achieve the lighter piston with least friction. Some of these are explained as follows: Cast piston is used for light-duty. The cast surface tells us this piston wont stand up to extremes of temperature and rpm because the molecular structure isnt as tight as it is with hypereutectic and forged pistons. Die-cast pistons are made by pouring molten aluminium into a mould. Then, the piston is machined into a finished product. Hypereutectic pistons are little more than a die-cast slug with a high silicone content. This makes the surfaces harder and shinier. It also changes the expansion properties, allowing you to run tighter piston-to-cylinder-wall clearances. You can run a hypereutectic piston a lot harder than you can a cast unit. The high-silicone content gives the hypereutectic a forged appearance. Note the huge valve relief for those Cleveland intake valves. Forged pistons are more involved, and, certainly, more expensive to make. Instead of a simple mould, we need a giant press, which rams the aluminium into a complex mould under high pressure. Machining forged pistons is no small feat. It is both time consuming and expensive. The forged piston advantage is greater strength, harder surfaces, more predictable expansion properties, and virtually no porosity. Another advantage to forged pistons is the ability to make them lighter and with less skirt. We can do this because forged pistons are stronger. We can machine more meat out of them without suffering structural losses. Forged pistons have a distinctive look, with an extra-hard surface and machining marks. These are what you go with when high rpm and high heat are expected. If youre running nitrous or supercharging, theyre mandatory. Piston technology has come a long way. Computer-aided design and CNC machining technology has made it possible to make custom pistons for just about any application you can think of. With this technology has come lighter pistons with less skirt that offer less friction. Piston Design: Piston design and shape greatly effect how an engine performs. When pistons are too heavy, we lose power. Design in too much skirt, and we lose power through excessive friction. Too little skirt, and the piston becomes unstable. Shoehorn in too much displacement, push the wrist pin into the ring grooves, and you have a formula for piston failure because this exerts too much heat on the pin and boss. In the dreamy world of piston science, we dream of the perfect pistonthe piston that creates very little friction (drag), weighs very little, carries just the right amount of oil up the cylinder walls, and provides a perfect cylinder seal. In the real world, it is nearly impossible to achieve all of these elements at once. http://www.mustangandfords.com/techarticles/mufp_0505_piston_fundamentals/piston_selection.html Piston Engine: A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the common features of all types. The main types are: The internal combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, The steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution, The niche application Stirling engine. Piston Make: The current problem is that there are two pistons with failure; the author here is doing analysis and investigation on the tow pistons trying to find the root causes for this problem and how to avoid this to happen again next time. Those tow pistons are parts in a marine diesel engine made by a German company called MAN Diesel Turbo. MAN Diesel Turbo is one of the worlds leading suppliers in its various fields. From pleasure yacht engines to four-stroke engines for giant container ships, from emergency power units  to turnkey diesel power plants, from single compressors and turbines to complete machine trains for various industrial applications. The engine for the piston is a marine engine with product number L20/27. In theory, diesel engines are internal combus ­tion engines designed to convert the chemical energy available in fuel into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy moves pistons up and down inside cylinders. The pistons are connected to a crankshaft, and the up-and-down motion of the pistons, known as linear motion, creates the rotary motion needed to turn the wheels of a car forward. Diesel engines covert fuel into energy through a series of small explosions or combustions. explosions happen In a diesel engine; the air is compressed first, and then the fuel is injected. Because air heats up when its compressed, the fuel ignites. The diesel engine uses a four-stroke combustion cycle . The four strokes are: Stroke 1 of 4 Suck: Intake stroke On the intake or induction stroke of the piston , the piston descends from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, reducing the pressure inside the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port. The intake valve(s) then close. The intake valve opens up, letting in air and moving the piston down.  ­ Stroke 2 of 4 Squeeze Compression stroke: With both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of the cylinder compressing the fuel-air mixture. This is known as the compression stroke. The piston moves back up and compresses the air. Stroke 3 of 4 Bang Combustion stroke: While the piston is at or close to Top Dead Center, the compressed airà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬fuel mixture is ignited, usually by a spark plug (for a gasoline or Otto cycle engine) or by the heat and pressure of compression (for a diesel cycle or compression ignition engine). The resulting massive pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture drives the piston back down toward bottom dead center with tremendous force. This is known as the power stroke, which is the main source of the engines torque and power. As the piston reaches the top, fuel is injected at just the right moment and ignited, forcing the piston back down. Stroke 4 of 4 Blow Exhaust stroke: During the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead center while the exhaust valve is open. This action evacuates the products of combustion from the cylinder by pushing the spent fuel-air mixture through the exhaust valve(s). The piston moves back to the top, pushing out the exhaust created from the combustion out of the exhaust valve. Remember that the diesel engine has no spark plug, that it intakes air and compresses it, and that it then injects the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (direct injection). It is the heat of the compressed air that lights the fuel in a diesel engine. In the next section, well examine the diesel injection process. Lubrication cooling Medium-alkaline lube oils have proven to be suitable for lubricating the power train, the cylinders, the turbocharger and, if the facility is provided, for the cooling of the pistons. Such medium-alkaline lube oils contain additives which, amongst other things, provide them with a higher neutralization capability than is the case with blended (HD) oils. Basic oil The basic oil (medium-alkaline lube oil = basic oil + additives) must be a narrow distillation cut and must be refined according to modern methods. Bright stocks, if contained, must neither adversely affect the thermal nor the oxidation stability of the basic oil Medium-alkaline lube oil The basic oil with additives have been mixed (medium-alkaline lube oil) must demonstrate the following characteristics: The additives must be dissolved in the oil and must be of such a composition tat an absolute minimum of ash remains as residue after combustion, even if temporary operated on distillate fuel. That ash must be soft. If this prerequisite id not complied with, increased deposits are to be expected in the combustion chamber especially at the outlet valves and in the inlet housing of the turbochargers. Hard additive ash promotes pitting on the valve seats, as well as burnt-out valves and increased mechanical wear. Additives must not cause clogging of the filter elements, neither in their active nor in their exhausted state. The cleaning capacity must be so high that coke and tar-like residues occurring when fuel is combusted must not build-up. The dispersing capacity must selected such that commercially available lube oil cleaning equipment can remove the combustion deposits from the used oil, i.e. the used oil must possess good separation and filtration properties. The neutralization capacity (ASTM-D2896) must be so high that the acidic products which emanate during combustion are neutralized by the lube oil consumption of the engine. The reaction time of the additives must be matched to the process in the combustion chamber. The tendency to evaporate must be as low as possible, otherwise the oil consumption is adversely affected. The lube oil must not form a stable emulsion with water. The lube oil must not contain agents to improve viscosity index. The fresh oil must be free from water and other contaminants.

Chapter

Why? Found it really interesting that Gerry had Stan tell so many early recollections in a row without spending time talking about them individually. This technique makes sense so that the stories form a pattern, but it was surprising to me. The most interesting aspect of the early recollections that Stan spoke of, was that he felt that all the past memories were not as emotional as the one with the kitten. I would have expected being yelled at in very memory would have been a saddening realization.But, the memories, other than the one about the kitten, were ones he had already thought about prior to the session, so maybe he had already processed the emotions of them in a way. If you were counseling Stan from this particular theoretical framework, what is one additional technique you might use? What would you hope to accomplish with this intervention? I would have encouraged Stan to make the connection of his memories of his parents being all filled with anxiety and yelling, and ask if those memories reflect anything in his current relationship with them.If you were the client, how would you be likely to respond to the therapist's (Jersey's) comments and interventions in this particular session? If I were Stan would have been very interested in the connections between my early memories and my present life. I would be exited to write down more memories in hopes of finding even more connections to current views, thoughts, or habits. Connections, like these, are fascinating. Chapter After the plague had already been unleashed in Europe, one of the first reactions was people believing that God had unleashed the deadly disease, as depicted in Giovanni Ceramic's (Doc 3) illustration of angels, coming down from the heavens, delivering their arrows of death unto the people. Sarcasms acknowledges that some people were able to escape the arrow of the Black Death in the description of his illustration. As an apothecary, it makes sense hat he views the plague as being delivered by arrows, because normally disease does not affect everyone.Disease, like arrows bypass those who are immune and strike those that are not immune. Another depiction of the plague by an anonymous source (Doc 6) illustrates that a divine entity was delivering the plague to those on earth. The common belief that God caused the plague shows how many people were religious and believed in God and thought that He was punishing them. An alternate view of the plague was blame. Many people blamed the Jews, hill others blamed God and beat themselves in hopes of God intervening. Biochip (Doc 2) discusses that people would torture themselves, the Flagellants, in hopes of God's mercy.This response to the plague was very erratic but somewhat logical because even though they beat themselves, it was for a reason, a call for God's help. With a humanistic point of view, Biochip believes that there is a more scientific approach to conquering the plague instead of hoping God will come down from the heavens and intervene and help the Flagellants. On the other hand, many people blamed the Jews, for instance when they were cremated in Strasbourg, Germany on Valentine's Day (Doc 7) where the Jews were alleged to have poisoned the water supply, in which case they were all burned.This response was made out of hatred, the Jews were a scapegoat because no one really knew how the plague came to be. Many people acted angrily and erratically in hopes Of ending the plague which ended in even more death. Th e Black Plague had a major effect on the population in Europe at the time it ravaged through the continent. The pre-plague population (Doc 9) in Europe was approximately 83 million, but after the plague ran its course, the population subsequently decreased to 60 million.The plague had a major pros and cons to it. A pro would be the fact that it led to the Renaissance Era; while a con would be the major loss of life in Europe. The most popular place of death or where most people died (Doc 8) would be the Holy Roman Empire followed by France. The significance of the amount of death in these two areas is important because it allows us to recognize that these two areas had he worst overpopulation, living conditions, famine, or economic depression over all of Europe.Even though the plague was a traumatic and insane experience for those who lived through the Bubonic Plague, but without the plague, perhaps the most important era that led to the spread of information, knowledge, and prosper ity. People today are able to look how people during the plague responded to disease and now are able to use their reactions to guide future reactions and help resolve the problems people faced back then. Chapter State diagram shows the states of the objects and how those states change. Sequence diagram only shows the message interactions among the objects. 4. Mention and describe three different views used in architectural design. Architectural design is a high level view of the system. It can be described with: logical view : represents the decomposition of a system and how those parts work with each other physical architectural view: represents the mapping of the software to the hardware process view: represents the run- time â€Å"processes† and flow of the system. 5.What is the difference between data modeling and logical data base design? In data modeling we are instructing and showing the Entity-Relationship among the objects. In logical data base design, the E-R diagram is converted to the sets of tables and relationships among the tables. 6. What is the difference between low fidelity prototypes and high fidelity prototypes? Low fidelity prototypes are quick hand drawn screens using markers, post-it notes, post cards, and/or cut out images to represent the screens of the system. Simple mockup sketch of the target product.High fidelity prototypes are screens created using a tool to design the screens. These screens look and mimic the behavior of the future screens of the system. An example of a tool is visual basic with the use of hide and show. Detailed mockup resembling and behaving close to the final product. 7. Discuss Figure 7. 26 with regard to the user's interaction; the screen's interaction; and the system's interaction (process). The user sees the Registration Screen for the Spring 2012, using the drop box â€Å"All Courses† they would select a course and click the button â€Å"Add Course†.The screen would show the representation seen at the top of Figure 7. 26 initially. This screen would react to the user's usage of the drop box (showing a scrollable list of he available courses and showing the course selected). When the user has selected a course and clicked â€Å"Add Course' the screen would send the information to the registration and when the Registration returns success it would show the second screen in Figure 7. 26. The system's interaction shown in Figure 7. 26 begins with the Registrations object passing the registration information to the section object.This section object needs to check if the student has the prerequisites for the course. If the Boolean returned is True then the message Add(student) is sent to students object. Note: another sequence diagram would represent Boolean = False. 8. Explain â€Å"Adding a course† from section 7. 3. 4. 1 using Normal's 7 Stage Model. 1 Form a goal -? add Engle 201 1 – The user (student) forms the goal â€Å"l need to add Engle 2011 to my schedule†. 2 Form an intention – find Engle 201 1 The user (student) forms the intention on the screen shown in 7. 26 to find Engle 201 1 in the drop box. Specify the action – mouse can show courses in the drop box – The user will decide to use the mouse to click and hold open the drop box and move the mouse down until he/she sees the Engle 2011 course. Execute the action – The user moves the mouse to the arrow in the drop box and clicks when he/she is on the arrow of the drop box. 5 Perceive the system state (feedback) – he/she sees the drop box open with multiple courses in a list. 6 Interpret the feedback – he/she sees the Engle 201 1 7 Evaluate – because the user sees the course they evaluate â€Å"Success† to their intention.Note: They would continue with the next intention to click â€Å"Add Course†. 9. List the four components of the GYMS model for user interfaces. The 4 factors of GYMS model are : Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection Rules 10. Explain how the Model-View-controller architectural style is done using HTML-Script-SQL. The Model-View-Controller (MFC) architectural style is done with HTML as t he View of the system and SQL as a database. The database has the model of the system. PH is the script used as the controller for the system. Chapter 8: 1 .Question: What are the two general characteristics of a design that naturally carry over from requirements? Answer: The design is an evolution from requirements. So the two general characteristics of a) consistency and b) completeness of requirements usually carry over to the design. 2. Question: What is Menace's climatic complexity number a) attempting to measure, and b) what is the climatic complexity number of a program A that contains 3 binary predicates (or branches)? Answer: a) Menace's climatic complexity number measures the control flow complexity of software. ) Using the simple formula of (#if binary branches + 1), the climatic number of program A is (3+1 ) or 4. 3. Question: What is a program slice? Answer: A program slice is the set of statements that can affect the value of some specified variable of interest in the program. 4. Question: What are glue tokens and super glue tokens, and which type nutrients more to cohesion? Answer: Glue tokens are data tokens that lie in more than one data-slice, and super glue tokens are data tokens that lie in every data-slice. The super glue tokens contribute more to cohesion because they lie in every data slice. 5. Question: What is software cohesion?Answer: Cohesion is a characteristic that describes the degree of relatedness within the software. 6. Question: What are the levels of cohesion? Answer: There are 7 levels of cohesion listed in the order of worst to best: coincidental, logical, temporal, procedural, communicational, sequential, and national. 7. Question: What is software coupling? Answer: Coupling is a characteristic that describes the degree of interdependence or interaction among the parts within the software. 8. Question: What are the levels of coupling? Answer: There are 5 levels of coupling listed in the order of worst to best: content, com mon, control, stamp, and data. . Question: What are the six design measurements of C-K metrics in 00? Answer: They are a) weighted number of methods per class, b) depth of inheritance tree of the class, c) number of children of a class, d) coupling between objects, e) number of espouses to a class message, and f) lack of cohesion among methods in a class 10. Question: In contrast to general design, what is user interface design interested in? Answer: The general software design is concerned about the software components, their characteristics and their interactions.User interface design is focused on the interaction between the software and its human users; thus both software and human attributes are of concern in user interface design. 1 1 . Question: List four out of the eight rules of user interface design identified by Seminarian and Pleasant. Answer: There are actually 8: a) consistency, b) roved short cuts, c) informative feedback, d) closure in dialogues, e) simple error hand ling and prevention, f) permit â€Å"re-do†, g) support locus of control, h) reduce the amount of short-term memory needs. Any four of the eight would be fine. 12.Question: What are the general cohesion and coupling goals when designing software? Answer: We strive for lesser or looser coupling of software, and we design for stringer or tighter cohesion. 13. Question: What is the Law of Demeter attempting to achieve? Answer: Law of Demeter is a set of guiding rules that limits the span of control of an object y restricting the messaging structure among methods of a class. Through these restrictions it is conjectured that we can reduce coupling and enhance cohesion. 14. Question: What is fan-in and fan-out, and what attribute do they measure?Answer: Fan-in is a measure of number of information flow into a module or component. Fan-out is the number of information flow out of a module. An example of fan-in for module-x would be the number of modules that call module-x and for fan -out of module-x would be the number of modules that are called by module-x. Thus fan-in and fan-out measure the coupling attribute among modules. Chapter 9: 1. Question: is the act of transforming the detailed design into a valid program in some programming language. Answer: Implementation. 2. Question: List 3 desirable characteristics of a good implementation.Answer: Readability; maintainability; performance; traceability; correctness; completeness. 3. Question: True or False? : The most important issues for maintaining a good coding style are: to be consistent and to try to highlight the meaning of your code. Answer: True. 4. Question: You should choose longer names for local variables or entities, but can use shorter ones for global variables or entities. Answer: False. 5. Question: List 3 of the types of code comments described in the book. Answer: Repeat of the code; explanation of the code; marker in the code; summary of the code; description of the code intent; external refe rences. Chapter In 1 966 the gate ticket revenues mainly paid for player's wages and with the commercial television of Ames global audiences and fan bases grew. In 2009 clubs such as real Madrid, Manchester united and Barcelona became lucrative deals for investors. However, the investment model for football clubs changed and many investors started leveraging the investments through massive amounts of debt. Many clubs in the UK were public limited companies and were listed on the stock exchange but recently many have been brought into private ownership again through private equity.Bankruptcies and corruption scandals have raised questions to whether many football clubs have been able to have a smooth transition into the repressions business world. A clubs livelihood is directly related to their fan base (spectators, TV audiences, or consumers of merchandise) but over the past decade the average attendance to the English Premier League matches has stagnated and younger people have been wary to attend. With high prices for tickets, fans have been feeling alienated by the players' wages and TV scheduling has greatly fuelled the feeling that football is no longer a fan's game but a business oriented way of generating revenue for owners. Between 1 996 and 2006, the seventy-two clubs of the English Football League add a pre-tax loss of IEEE m; in comparison, the other leagues clubs, that were predominantly owned by fans, made Emma operating profit through higher attendance at lower ticket prices.Recently initiatives, such as Supporters Direct, have addressed the fans' interests more directly. They have also been involving themselves in various social projects in the community (usually addressing social exclusion, unemployment, or anti-social behavior). These clubs have created community schemes that often partner with fans, police, and local council. However, clubs such as Real Madrid and FCC Barcelona are member-owned, democratic, and not-for-profit organizations and have leaderships that are accountable to the people who watch and pay.The All party Parliamentary Football Group published three recommendations to improve governance in the industry, these included: A ‘fit and proper persons test' for the management and ownership of clubs Supporter-led governance and, Nurture Eng domestic talent. With these recommendations given, a Stewardship Scorecard, developed by CAR think-tank tomorrow's company, ranked clubs on various criteria such as putting the club first' and â€Å"engagement with fans and the community'. Overall football is still dependent on a constant fan base since they are far less likely to switch allegiances due to poor performance.Ethical Dilemma: Who cares whose shares? 1. What is the main ethical issues in this case? The main issue is whether or not you should tell Freddie to sell his shares of Parchment (PC) because there will be a report published in Big Science magazine that could effect that shares negatively. This is considered insi der trading and is illegal. There are four main ethical arguments that used against insider: fairness, misappropriation to property, harm to investors and the market and undermining of fiduciary relationships (Crane & Matted, 2010).By telling Freddie, you would be giving himself and his clients an unfair advantage over other investors, he would also give up information of PC's privately documented information and knowledge without PC knowing meaning that he is BPCS property is being shared without knowledge. Harm would come to investors and the market because if everyone of Fireside's linens decide to sell their shares then other investors' stocks would decrease and leave others, including the company, wondering why the stocks dropped so much before the release of the report.Your fiduciary responsibility to the company and other shareholders should be one of the most important things since you are an employee of PC as well. 2. Who are the main stakeholders here, and how would you co mpare the relative importance of their stakes? The main stakeholders in the company are the shareholders the employees that don't have shares and the product users. From a humanitarian respective, the product users, whose health and safety are at risk by using product, would be considered the most important stakeholder, and then followed by the employees and then shareholders.From the business aspect the shareholders are the main stakeholders and then the employees and the product users would equally important. This is because the company will most likely not notice a change if a small amount of customers stop using the product. 3. Explain how you would ultimately decide and why. Would not tell Freddie about it because I would rather have a friend mad at e then to end up going to jail/be fined for insider trading by the company. Loud also not tell him because if it were to get out then my reputation for good work habits and judgment would be affected if I ever looked for another job or wanted to be promoted within PC. 4. Is there a difference between acting yourself on the information you were given and passing this information on to Freddie. Yes there is a difference because you aren't sharing company information with anyone so if you do end up selling your shares, and the stocks do not go own, then you would only be hurting yourself and not effecting other investors. Chapter Emancipation Proclamation announcement made by president Lincoln during the Civil War; emancipated all black slaves in States still engaged in rebellion against Union; went into affect January 1, 1863. Fort Sumter – a fort located in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina; the location of the start of the Civil War. George B. McClellan – commander of the Army of the Potomac and general of the war. Gettysburg a battle of which was fought from July 1-3, 1863; Lee withdrew from this battle July 4th (the same day as the surrender of Vicksburg). Greenbacks – paper currency.Homestead Act – allowed citizen (or prospective) to claim 1 60 acres and buy it or a small price after 5 years of living on it. Jefferson Davis – the â€Å"president† of confederacy; was unsuccessful; rarely provided any leadership. March to the Sea – sixty mile wide swath of desolation across Georgia; Sherman left Atlanta and destroyed towns and plantations through Georgia, S outh Carolina, and North Carolina. Morris Land Grant Act – transferred substantial public accuracy to state governments to sell and profits went to public education. Robert E. Lee – opposed secession; left US army to lead confederate forces.Shiloh – Grant, with new troops, recovered and forced Beauregard to withdraw; union victory. Thomas J. (Stonewall) Jackson – confederate army leader; defeated 2 union armies by charging course suddenly and slipped away. Ulysses S. Grant – constant, unrelenting assault (military); willing to fight when others wouldn't; presided over some of the worst carnage. US Sanitary Commission – organization of volunteers led by Dorothy Dig that embroiled large numbers of female nurses to serve in field hospitals. William Outcomes Sherman – led â€Å"march to the sea†; â€Å"war is all hell†; war should be as horrible and costly for the opponent.Questions: 1 . (Chart is on notebook paper attached) 2. Out Carolina- Deck. 20, 1860 Mississippi- Jan. 9, 1861 Florida- Jan. 10, 1861 Alabama- Jan. 19, 1861 Georgia- Jan. 19, 1861 Louisiana- Jan. 26, 1861 Texas- Feb.. 1, 1861 Virginia- April 17, 1861 Arkansas- May 6, 1861 North Carolina- May 20, 1861 Tennessee- June 2, 1861 3. The Accredited Compromise included 6 amendments and 4 congressional resolutions to guarantee permanent slavery. He did this in order to avoid war. 4. Lincoln did what he did in order to not be the first party of the war to take action. He did it to also escape the situation they'd been trapped in for several months. . 6. The National Bank Act of 1 865 established a system of national banks of which eventually developed the banking system we have today. It was important because it encouraged a national currency. 7. From the beginning, it was expected to be a short and low funding war. Walt that being said, the initial (first) war funded by borrowing but eventually realized that it was much more, so they created the Revenue Act of 1862 which increased taxes drastically including federal income taxes which infuriated supporters Of the war. 8. The government raised the majority of it's money by Revenue tax stamps. . The majority of the Northern nation was not supportive at all; riots occasionally occurred. They saw these laws to be an intrusion of privacy and a violation of one's sovereignty. 10. One could avoid by buying their way out of being drafted, or even substitute themselves with another member of their household. 11. Lincoln considered certain parts of the constitution to be â€Å"inconvenient,† in turn often ignoring those specific portions and did what he thought needed be done rather than consulting with congress as to what the constitution states and/or implies should be done. 12.The peace democrats ere a group of people of which believed the North pushed the South to secession. They also believed Lincoln was a tyrant and that the war was a national tragedy. This group was present in the mid-west section of the US including Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. 13. A. ) He justified the suspension by claiming it was in respect of those arrested. B. ) Everyone' rights were affected as it limited citizens to have an opinion that wasn't supporting the government. 14. Chief Justice Tangy issued this writ, or formal written order, requiring him to release an imprisoned Maryland secessionist leader. Lincoln swaggered this request. 5. The Confiscation Act declared that all slaves that were used for â€Å"insurrectionist† purposes would be considered freed. The second Confiscation Act declared to free the slaves of the persons aiding and us porting the insurrection (regardless of if the slaves were doing so) and also authorized the president to employ African Americans, including freed slaves, as soldiers. As a result, with the progression of the war, the North grew to be more accepting Of emancipation. By the end Of the Civil War, slavery had been abolished i n two Union slave states and in three Confederate dates occupied by Union forces. 16.The Emancipation Proclamation was the war power act Pres. Lincoln issued on Jan. 1, 1863. This act declared forever free slaves in all areas of the Confederacy aside from those already under Union control (Tennessee, western Virginia, and southern Louisiana). It also did no apply to border slave states. 17. Slaves were often taken from their designated plantations and transported to the front, escaping Northern lines, unable to be returned to their masters. Some slaves joined the Union army, while others stayed with troops to flee to free states. Antislavery impulse gained strength, regardless of the act's inability to affect certain areas. 8. About 1 86,000 emancipated African Americans served as soldiers, sailors, and laborers for the Union forces. It was only the first few months of the war that African Americans were widely excluded. They were treated very poorly. Many died from disease due to w orking in unsanitary conditions for arduous hours. Black soldiers were paid a third less in comparison to white soldiers, as well. 19. Women were often put in nursing positions whether it'd been by choice or necessity. They also worked as retail sales clerks, office workers, and mill & factory hands.Shallowness' wives often became responsible for managing slave work forces; the wives Of more modest farmers plowed fields and harvested crops. These were all positions previously dominated by men. 20. Although there were several significant exceptions, the Federal government and the Confederate government were very similar (These exceptions included the acknowledgment of the sovereignty of the individual states, and the sanctioning of slavery [of which made abolition nearly impossible]). 21 . The region focused so intensely on producing cotton and other export crops.The departure of so many white males severely diminished the region's ability to maintain food production. Copious amounts of doctors were conscripted to serve the needs of the military, of which left many communities without any medical care. In effect, the South experienced shortages of everything. Because of this, along with inflation, there was a major instability in Southern society. Resistance to conscription, food impressments, and taxation increased throughout the Confederacy, as well as hoarding and black-market monomer. 22. While raising their armies, many more white Southerners were exempted from military service than Northerners.Conscription was successful for a period of time. Although, after 1862, conscription began to produce fewer men. In early 1864, the government experienced a shortage of manpower. At this time, situations called for desperate measures; the Confederate congress began drafting men as young as 1 7 and as old as 50. 23. The North's economy was strengthened, thus increasing industry and railroad development. The South's was weakened because of millions of Lars worth of pr operty being destroyed and the region's young male population having depleted. 24.The production of weapons was more efficient due to technological advances. Weapons were also stronger and more powerful. 25. A. ) The first battle occurred on July 21, 1861. This battle nearly succeeded in dispersing the Confederate forces, but was unable due to the Southerners taking action in stopping a last strong Union assault and performing a savage counterattack. As a result, the Confederates retreated in an unrecognized manner. When disorganized, as the Union forces were by feat with a short of supplies and transportation, the Confederates did not pursue.Because of this battle, the Union's morale and the president's confidence in his officers were destroyed. B. ) The battle of Animate began on September 17. Mescaline's 87,000-man army attacked Lee's force of 50,000. 6,000 soldiers died, and 1 7,000 sustained injuries. At the end of the day, as the Confederate line seemed ready to break, the las t of Jackson's troops arrived to reinforce it. McClellan then allowed Lee to retreat to Virginia. This battle only lasted one day. C. ) There were complications for the Union forces n the East, but important victories occurred in the West.Grant moved his his and supplies to an area south of the city. He then attacked Vicksburg from the rear. Vicksburg surrendered 6 weeks later on July 4, due to the fact that residents were starving as a result of a prolonged siege. D. ) Lee attacked Mead's army once they were perched on the hills south of the town. Lee's forces Were outnumbered 75,000 to 90,000 and his assault On the Union forces on Cemetery Ridge failed. The next day he ordered a second, larger effort. 1 5,000 Confederates advanced nearly a mile while being swept by Union fire. Chapter First Pages editor of the Harvard Business Review, noted that organizations must also undergo significant efforts to protect their human capital. A firm may â€Å"diversify the ownership of vital knowledge by emphasizing teamwork, guard against obsolescence by developing learning programs, and shackle key people with golden handcuffs. â€Å"23 In addition, people are less likely to leave an organization if there are effective structures to promote teamwork and information sharing, strong leadership that encourages innovation, and cultures that demand excellence and ethical behavior.Such issues are central to this chapter. Although we touch on these issues throughout this chapter, we provide more detail in later chapters. We discuss organizational controls (culture, rewards, and boundaries) in Chapter 9, organization structure and design in Chapter 10, and a variety of leadership and entrepreneurship topics In Chapters 11 and 12. Human Capital: The Foundation of Intellectual Capital Organizations must recruit talented people?employees at all levels with the proper sets of skills and capabilities coupled with the right values and attitudes.Such skills and attitudes must be continually developed, strengthened, and reinforced, and each employee must be motivated and her efforts focused on the organization's goals and objectives. 24 The rise to prominence of knowledge workers as a vital source of competitive advantage is changing the balance of power in today's organization. Knowledge workers place professional development and personal enrichment (financial and otherwise) above company loyalty. Attracting, recruiting, and hiring the â€Å"best and the brightest,† Is a critical first step in the process of building intellectual capital.How to Lure Gene Y Workers? Commonly. Com, August 17: NP; Mantilla. 2007. How Going Green Draws Talent, Cut Costs. Wall Street Journal, November 13: BIO; and, O'Dell, A. M. 2007. Working for the Earth: Green Companies and Gree n Jobs Attract Employees. Www. Socializing . Com, 4. 1 environmental responsibility when it recruits on campuses. It showcases the company's new corporate headquarters, in Measuring, Ohio, that uses 28 percent to 39 percent less energy than a standard office building and is furnished with environmentally friendly materials.Says Nephew CEO Mark Sunny, â€Å"At the end of the day, we are competing with everyone else for the best talent, and this is a generation that is very concerned with the environment. † To meet the growing demand for students interested in working for green companies, Nonstarters, a unit of the giant employment firm Monster. Com, launched Greengrocers. It was the first online recruitment service that focuses on green employment. Econometrical and the Environmental Defense Fund, two environmental nonprofits, are adding their expertise in partnership with Nonstarters. Econometrical approached Nonstarters to create Greengrocers because there is an urgent need to reach and educate environmentally ‘agnostic' audiences, in this case college students, about the ways they can address climate change and other serious environmental problems,† claims Mark Cockroach, vice president and general manager at Nonstarters. Environmental sustainability To illustrate such interdependence, poor hiring impedes the effectiveness of development and retention processes. In a similar vein, ineffective retention efforts place additional burdens on hiring and development.Consider the following anecdote, provided by Jeffrey Prefer of the Stanford University Business School: Not long ago, I went to a large, fancy San Francisco law firm?where they treat their associates like dog do and where the turnover is very high. I asked the managing partner about the turnover rate. He said, â€Å"A few years ago, it was 25 percent, and now we're up to 30 percent. I asked him how the firm had responded to that trend. He said, â€Å"We increased our recruiting. â €  So I asked him, â€Å"What kind of doctor would you be if your patient was bleeding faster and faster, and your only response was to increase the speed of the transfusion? 29 Clearly, stepped-up recruiting is a poor substitute for weak retention. Although there are no simple, easy-to-apply answers, we can learn from what leading-edge firms are doing to attract, develop, and retain human capital in today's highly competitive marketplace. 30 Before moving on, Strategy Spotlight 4. 1 addresses the importance of firm's â€Å"green† or environmental sustainability strategy in attracting young talent. Deserted chic 118-155. Tend 124 Attracting Human Capital All we can do is bet on the people we pick. So my whole Job is picking the right people.Jack Welch, former chairman, General Electric Company 31 The first step in the process of building superior human capital is input control: attracting and selecting the right person. Human resource professionals often approach employee selection from a â€Å"lock and key' mentality?that is, fit a key (a Job candidate) into a lock (the Job). Such an approach involves a thorough analysis of the errors and the Job. Only then can the right decision be made as to how well the two will fit together. How can you fail, the theory goes, if you get a precise match of knowledge, ability, and skill profiles?Frequently, however, the precise matching approach places its emphasis on task-specific skills (e. G. , motor skills, specific information processing capabilities, and communication skills) and puts less emphasis on the broad general knowledge and experience, social skills, values, beliefs, and attitudes of employees. Many have questioned the precise matching approach. They argue that firms can identify top performers by focusing on key employee mind-sets, attitudes, social skills, and general orientations. If they get these elements right, the task-specific skills can be learned quickly. This does not imply, however, th at task-specific skills are unimportant; rather, it suggests that the requisite skill sets must be viewed as a necessary but not sufficient condition. ) This leads us to a popular phrase today and serves as the title of the next section. â€Å"Hire for Attitude, Train for Skill† Organizations are increasingly emphasizing general knowledge and experience, social skills, values, beliefs, and attitudes of employees. 32 Consider Southwest Airlines' hiring practices, which focus on employee values and attitudes. Given its strong team orientation, Southwest uses an â€Å"indirect† approach.For example, the interviewing team asks a group of employees to prepare a five- minute presentation about themselves. During the presentations, interviewers observe which candidates enthusiastically support their peers and which candidates focus on polishing their own presentations while the others are presenting. 33 The roomer are, of course, favored. Alan Cooper, president of Cooper Soft ware, Inc. , in Palo Alto, California, goes further. He cleverly uses technology to hone in on the problem- solving ability of his applicants and their attitudes before an interview even takes place.He has devised a â€Å"Bozo Filter,† an online test that can be applied to any industry. Before you spend time on whether Job candidates will work out satisfactorily, find out how their minds work. Cooper advised, â€Å"Hiring was a black see our test. It's a self-administering bozo filter. â€Å"34 How does it work? The online test asks questions designed to see how prospective employees approach provisioning tasks. For example, one key question asks software engineer applicants to design a table-creation software program for Microsoft Word. Candidates provide pencil sketches and a description of the new user interface.Another question used for design communicators asks them to develop a marketing strategy for a new touch- tone phone?directed at consumers in the year 1850. Cand idates e-mail their answers back to the company, and the answers are circulated around the firm to solicit feedback. Only candidates with the highest marks get interviews. Sound Recruiting Approaches and Networking Companies that take hiring seriously must also take recruiting seriously. The number of Jobs that successful knowledgeableness companies must fill is astonishing.Ironically, many companies still have no shortage of applicants. For example, Google, ranked fourth on Fortune's 2009 â€Å"100 Best Companies to Work For,† still attracts 777,000 applicants a year?even though hiring has slowed. 35 The challenge becomes having the right Job candidates, not the greatest number of them. Resources 125 Deserted chic 118-155. And 125 11/11/09 PM GE Medical Systems, which builds CT scanners and magnetic resonance imaging (MR.) systems, relies extensively on networking. They have found that current employees are the best source for new ones.Recently, Steven Potshot, head of staff ing and leadership development, made a few simple changes to double the number of referrals. First, he simplified the process?no complex forms, no bureaucracy, and so on. Second, he increased incentives. Everyone referring a qualified candidate received a gift certificate from Sears. For referrals who were hired, the â€Å"bounty' increases to $2,000. Although this may sound like a lot of money, it is â€Å"peanuts† compared to the $1 5,000 to $20,000 fees that GE typically pays to headhunters for each person hired. 6 Also, when someone refers a former colleague or friend for a Job, his or her credibility is on the line. Thus, employees will be careful in recommending people for employment unless they are reasonably confident that these people are good candidates. This provides a good â€Å"screen† for the firm in deciding whom to hire. Hiring the right people makes things a lot easier: fewer rules and regulations, less need for monitoring and hierarchy, and greater i nitialization f organizational norms and objectives. Consider some of the approaches that retire, people in this demographic group are becoming more and more important in today's workforce.We also provide some â€Å"tips† on how to get hired. We address these issues in Exhibit 4. 3. Developing Human Capital It is not enough to hire top-level talent and expect that the skills and capabilities of those employees remain current throughout the duration of their employment. Rather, training and development must take place at all levels of the organization. 37 For example, Selection assembles printed circuit boards and other components for TTS Silicon Valley clients. 38 Its employees receive an average of 95 hours of company- provided training each year.Chairman Winston Chem. observed, â€Å"Technology changes so fast that we estimate 20 percent of an engineer's knowledge becomes obsolete each year. Training is an obligation we owe to our employees. If you want high growth and hig h quality, then training is a big part of the equation. † Although the financial returns on training may be hard to calculate, most experts believe it is essential. One company that has calculated the benefit from training is Motorola. Every dollar spent on training returns $30 in productivity gains over the following three years.In addition to training and developing human capital, firms must encourage widespread involvement, monitor and track employee development, and evaluate human capital. 39 Encouraging Widespread Involvement Developing human capital requires the active involvement of leaders at all levels. It won't be successful if it is viewed only as the responsibility of the human resources department. Each year at General Electric, 200 facilitators, 30 officers, 30 human resource executives, and many young managers actively participate in Gee's orientation program at Correlation, its training center outside New York City. Chapter A model Is an abstraction of a real system. True + False Question 2 2/ 2 points True or False? In a discrete-event simulation, an event is an interaction between objects in the system. Question 3 2/ 2 points True or False? Meteorologists often use multiple simulated models, which make different assumptions, to predict the weather. True* Question 4 2/ 2 points True or False? The most common application of computer graphics in modern operating systems is the graphical user interface. True+Question 5 2/ 2 points True or False? In computer graphics, knit cloth and woven cloth should move and drape In the same way. True False* Question 6 2/ 2 points Which of the following best describes a simulation in which the model is viewed at uniform time intervals? A) discrete-event b) concrete c) abstract e) continuous Question 7 2/ 2 points Which of the following best describes a model that represents a real environment, such as a flight simulator? A) time-driven b) discrete-event c) continuous d) concrete + e) abstractQuestion 8 2/ 2 points Which of the following best describes a simulation that expresses change in terms of a set of differential equations? A) concrete c) time-driven d) continuous + Question 9 2/ 2 points Which of the following describes the angle at which a human looks at a mirror? B) transposition vector c) normal vector d) reflection vector e) light vector Question 10 2/ 2 points Which of the following is NOT a game genre or a game submerge? A) strategy games b) life-simulation games c) role-playing games d) action games. Chapter Volcano erupting in Hawaii because Peel upset. Must make Peel happy to stop volcano. Names in Sociology Berger – seeing the general in the particular (making the familiar strange) Mills – Sociological Imagination comet (1837) Social physics / positivism Theological Metaphysical Human equality to what is going on in their life Scientific process to what is going on in their life All issues are happening because of a scientific process Harriet Martinets Female in a man's world Translated Comet' into English Early Feminist and very dominate Research methods Women's issues Father disowned her @ early age of 21Karl Marx Materialism Class conflict Philosopher Bi-polar Wrote about economic institutions of capitalism Market will control itself Excessive focus on materialism how the focus of stuff effects the relationship; managing works The essence of conflicts impacts institutions Max Weber 1 SST sociologist Suffered from severe depression How religion institution drive the ec onomic structure Persistent – research until you have understand what is going on Mile Druthers Statistics Social facts Number guy – census data collector Positivistic sociology Suicide Anomie Enormousness – loss of normalNot dependable George Simmer Urban sociology Study of structures of groups in cities (Group dynamics) Names in Sociology in the US Robert Park Father of Sociology Started the 1st dept. Of sociology in [email  protected] the Univac. Of Chicago Charles Cooley â€Å"looking-glass self† Your participation in groups is influenced on how people see you George Herbert Mead W. E. B.DUBIOUS 1st African American male to Received PhD from Harvard Expounded the NAACP Asked to teach sociology @ Atlanta University Developed the concept of â€Å"double consciousness† How people react differently with different situation Jane Addams Hull House Social worked Nobel prize (1931) Theories – Explain, Describe, Predict; Life structurally runs on theories Functionalism – what is the reason?Organism – How the human body works – made up of systems Manifest / latent Manifest function – positive outcome Latent function – positive or negative outcome Social consensus â€Å"reasons' Microbiology – Looking for big picture Conflict – Competing interest (limited goods), Societal driving force , Exists on all levels Initiates change Power Gender/age Political Economic Microbiology – generally concerned with social dynamics at a higher level of analysis Society functions on conflict Conflict is mostly about limited goods – Have / Have Not Conflict theory views society from exactly the opposite of perspective Conflict is good for society cause it represents change There has and always will be conflict between workers & entrepreneurs (I. E†¦. Why unions were created) Feminist Theory – Conflict model where gender is concerned / Political reform Symbolic Interac tions Interpretation of symbols Face to face interactions Creating reality Microbiology (Seeks to understand local international context) Max Weber Interpretive sociology Persistent Post Modernism: Sometimes part of all of the above theories Fast changing interactions Subjective / objective Given the pace of the world today, it is all of the above theories, embrace all Midrange Theory: Social institutions focus Booker T Washington W. E.B Dubious Civil Rights Institutions are a very strong influence on groups behavior Attempt to predict how certain social institutions tend to function Sociology Connect to History (events, social change) Anthropology (study of culture) Psychology (social psychology) Political science (power governmental institution) Example: Explain Marriage with man duties vs.. Male duties Functionalism – because that is how they were raised or taught Conflict – males w/ more power Feminist – more women working to gain more power Symbolic  œ the two parties setting ground rules with each other regarding whom does what CHAPTER 2 How do sociologist due what they do?Majority & Minority in a group (in/out group) Social Networks – relations held together by ties (stories), strength of ties, structural ole (kinship gap), lack of communication on each side of hole (Ebay) Social Capital – pre-existing knowledge a person has that helps them enter network value you have that makes you socially interested to the group may be going down due to loose connections, less family togetherness, fewer group vacations, decreased civic engagement Network Analysis (social relationships) – epidemiology, teenage sex networks (hook-up {in tie}, virginity pledges {outside tie}) organization – legal, multiple secondary group, common purpose, boundaries between members (govern behaviors overpayment policy / group structure – immigration (1921 / Hart-cellar Act, 1965) organizational culture – shared belief s/behaviors organizational structure – structure with power / authority distribution interlocking directorates – mega – corporations institutional isomorphism – forced sameness of corporations in similar environments – airline ticket prices Chapter 6 – Social Deviance US incarceration rate: . 75% (2. 3 million), 25% of world – criminal Justice (formal deviance).Formal deviance is and expensive proposition because up keep and personal and a lot of time and energy. Social deviance – transgression of social norms {where, when, who (power)} knowing there is a norm out there and you are willing fully violate it relative to where you did it, when you did it, and who saw you do it informal – no societal level consequence – without serious repercussions but could be prolonged formal – with serious repercussions most of your life is filled with informal deviance and informal social control Social control device â₠¬â€œ bring back norm normative compliance – best social control device in society, by complying with all the norms both formal and informal Druthers (functionalism) – social cohesion (bonds), Chapter Chapter State diagram shows the states of the objects and how those states change. Sequence diagram only shows the message interactions among the objects. 4. Mention and describe three different views used in architectural design. Architectural design is a high level view of the system. It can be described with: logical view : represents the decomposition of a system and how those parts work with each other physical architectural view: represents the mapping of the software to the hardware process view: represents the run- time â€Å"processes† and flow of the system. 5.What is the difference between data modeling and logical data base design? In data modeling we are instructing and showing the Entity-Relationship among the objects. In logical data base design, the E-R diagram is converted to the sets of tables and relationships among the tables. 6. What is the difference between low fidelity prototypes and high fidelity prototypes? Low fidelity prototypes are quick hand drawn screens using markers, post-it notes, post cards, and/or cut out images to represent the screens of the system. Simple mockup sketch of the target product.High fidelity prototypes are screens created using a tool to design the screens. These screens look and mimic the behavior of the future screens of the system. An example of a tool is visual basic with the use of hide and show. Detailed mockup resembling and behaving close to the final product. 7. Discuss Figure 7. 26 with regard to the user's interaction; the screen's interaction; and the system's interaction (process). The user sees the Registration Screen for the Spring 2012, using the drop box â€Å"All Courses† they would select a course and click the button â€Å"Add Course†.The screen would show the representation seen at the top of Figure 7. 26 initially. This screen would react to the user's usage of the drop box (showing a scrollable list of he available courses and showing the course selected). When the user has selected a course and clicked â€Å"Add Course' the screen would send the information to the registration and when the Registration returns success it would show the second screen in Figure 7. 26. The system's interaction shown in Figure 7. 26 begins with the Registrations object passing the registration information to the section object.This section object needs to check if the student has the prerequisites for the course. If the Boolean returned is True then the message Add(student) is sent to students object. Note: another sequence diagram would represent Boolean = False. 8. Explain â€Å"Adding a course† from section 7. 3. 4. 1 using Normal's 7 Stage Model. 1 Form a goal -? add Engle 201 1 – The user (student) forms the goal â€Å"l need to add Engle 2011 to my schedule†. 2 Form an intention – find Engle 201 1 The user (student) forms the intention on the screen shown in 7. 26 to find Engle 201 1 in the drop box. Specify the action – mouse can show courses in the drop box – The user will decide to use the mouse to click and hold open the drop box and move the mouse down until he/she sees the Engle 2011 course. Execute the action – The user moves the mouse to the arrow in the drop box and clicks when he/she is on the arrow of the drop box. 5 Perceive the system state (feedback) – he/she sees the drop box open with multiple courses in a list. 6 Interpret the feedback – he/she sees the Engle 201 1 7 Evaluate – because the user sees the course they evaluate â€Å"Success† to their intention.Note: They would continue with the next intention to click â€Å"Add Course†. 9. List the four components of the GYMS model for user interfaces. The 4 factors of GYMS model are : Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection Rules 10. Explain how the Model-View-controller architectural style is done using HTML-Script-SQL. The Model-View-Controller (MFC) architectural style is done with HTML as t he View of the system and SQL as a database. The database has the model of the system. PH is the script used as the controller for the system. Chapter 8: 1 .Question: What are the two general characteristics of a design that naturally carry over from requirements? Answer: The design is an evolution from requirements. So the two general characteristics of a) consistency and b) completeness of requirements usually carry over to the design. 2. Question: What is Menace's climatic complexity number a) attempting to measure, and b) what is the climatic complexity number of a program A that contains 3 binary predicates (or branches)? Answer: a) Menace's climatic complexity number measures the control flow complexity of software. ) Using the simple formula of (#if binary branches + 1), the climatic number of program A is (3+1 ) or 4. 3. Question: What is a program slice? Answer: A program slice is the set of statements that can affect the value of some specified variable of interest in the program. 4. Question: What are glue tokens and super glue tokens, and which type nutrients more to cohesion? Answer: Glue tokens are data tokens that lie in more than one data-slice, and super glue tokens are data tokens that lie in every data-slice. The super glue tokens contribute more to cohesion because they lie in every data slice. 5. Question: What is software cohesion?Answer: Cohesion is a characteristic that describes the degree of relatedness within the software. 6. Question: What are the levels of cohesion? Answer: There are 7 levels of cohesion listed in the order of worst to best: coincidental, logical, temporal, procedural, communicational, sequential, and national. 7. Question: What is software coupling? Answer: Coupling is a characteristic that describes the degree of interdependence or interaction among the parts within the software. 8. Question: What are the levels of coupling? Answer: There are 5 levels of coupling listed in the order of worst to best: content, com mon, control, stamp, and data. . Question: What are the six design measurements of C-K metrics in 00? Answer: They are a) weighted number of methods per class, b) depth of inheritance tree of the class, c) number of children of a class, d) coupling between objects, e) number of espouses to a class message, and f) lack of cohesion among methods in a class 10. Question: In contrast to general design, what is user interface design interested in? Answer: The general software design is concerned about the software components, their characteristics and their interactions.User interface design is focused on the interaction between the software and its human users; thus both software and human attributes are of concern in user interface design. 1 1 . Question: List four out of the eight rules of user interface design identified by Seminarian and Pleasant. Answer: There are actually 8: a) consistency, b) roved short cuts, c) informative feedback, d) closure in dialogues, e) simple error hand ling and prevention, f) permit â€Å"re-do†, g) support locus of control, h) reduce the amount of short-term memory needs. Any four of the eight would be fine. 12.Question: What are the general cohesion and coupling goals when designing software? Answer: We strive for lesser or looser coupling of software, and we design for stringer or tighter cohesion. 13. Question: What is the Law of Demeter attempting to achieve? Answer: Law of Demeter is a set of guiding rules that limits the span of control of an object y restricting the messaging structure among methods of a class. Through these restrictions it is conjectured that we can reduce coupling and enhance cohesion. 14. Question: What is fan-in and fan-out, and what attribute do they measure?Answer: Fan-in is a measure of number of information flow into a module or component. Fan-out is the number of information flow out of a module. An example of fan-in for module-x would be the number of modules that call module-x and for fan -out of module-x would be the number of modules that are called by module-x. Thus fan-in and fan-out measure the coupling attribute among modules. Chapter 9: 1. Question: is the act of transforming the detailed design into a valid program in some programming language. Answer: Implementation. 2. Question: List 3 desirable characteristics of a good implementation.Answer: Readability; maintainability; performance; traceability; correctness; completeness. 3. Question: True or False? : The most important issues for maintaining a good coding style are: to be consistent and to try to highlight the meaning of your code. Answer: True. 4. Question: You should choose longer names for local variables or entities, but can use shorter ones for global variables or entities. Answer: False. 5. Question: List 3 of the types of code comments described in the book. Answer: Repeat of the code; explanation of the code; marker in the code; summary of the code; description of the code intent; external refe rences.

Main Divisions Between Mainstream and Critical Social Psychology

One of the main divisions between mainstream and critical social psychology is that of the methods adopted. Discuss with reference to the cognitive social and at least one other social psychological perspective. Social psychology has existed for about 100 years, before which psychology was a branch of philosophy. Social psychology studies individuals in their social contexts. It is a diverse discipline made up of many theoretical perspectives and variety of different methods are used in social psychological research. This assignment explores the main principles of different methods in social psychology. It will look at the underlying theories or perspectives that organise contemporary social and discursive psychological research and knowledge and critically evaluate different theoretical perspectives and methods. Cognitive social psychology studies the information processing individual in a social context to analyse individual cognitions in controlled social conditions. It is a quantative approach. It dominates psychological social psychology and emerged from the critique of behaviourism in the mid twentieth century. Researchers use an experimental approach involving controlled experimental conditions to produce quantitative data that can be measured and analysed to produce statistically valid conclusions. Discursive psychology focuses on the external world of discourse, its meaning and effects and studies the socially constructed, situated and contingent identity. It is a qualitative approach. It emerged in the 1970s with the linguistic turn, and was influenced by sociological social psychology. Researchers use discourse analysis to produce qualitative data by conversational and textual analysis. Phenomenological psychology focuses on the detailed description of social experience derived through the senses. It is a qualitative approach using the rich description of experience. It studies the internal world of the psyche in relational settings and its effect on action using first-person written account of experience, interview and literary text. It originated in the philosophy of Husserl in the late nineteenth/ early twentieth century. Social psychoanalytical psychology or psychosocial studies the internal world of the psyche in relational settings and its effects on actions. It is a qualitative approach. It looks at the conflicted psyche in dynamic relation with the external world. Using case study and free association narrative, interviews and observation qualitative data is evaluated through interpretation of what is unsaid as well as said. Its original development was in the clinic and it became an area of academic study in the late twentieth century. There are four overarching themes that can be used to interrogate a set of value issues that permeate social psychology. These are known as interrogative themes and they are outlined below. Power relations are central to the way that all knowledge is produced and interpreted. Power permeates everything we do and all our relationships . Power is neither good nor bad but it is what is done with it that determines this. Power is relational and the balance changes in different contexts. It is contextual and situated rather than absolute. Questions of power were first raised in relation to the deception of participants in the name of science. For example in Stanley Milgram’s (1965) experiment where participants were required to give increasing levels of electric shock to Milgram’s colleagues who posed as recipients of the electric shocks. The focus was on power relations between the scientist and participants, many of whom performed, as they believed, harmful and sadistic acts on the instructions of the scientist. Ethical guidelines in social psychology have been hugely influenced by this. The question of who has the power to interpret people’s experiences applies to all social psychological research. We need to be careful how we base interpretations on evidence, and we must interrogate how that evidence and those meanings came to be produced: within what assumptions and power relations. Power relations raise the issue of the relationship between the researcher and the participants. Another interrogative theme is situated knowledges. Knowledge always comes from a belief or view point Knowledge is always situated somewhere and sometime – it changes with time and is situated in terms of values, cultures, belief systems and history. It changes with social change. Knowledge production needs to be situated at the level of every piece of research. Methods are highly influential in the knowledges that are produced. Another interrogative theme is individual-society dualism. The most enduring theme in social psychology is whether individual or society is privileged in the explanation of social psychological phenomena and derives from the wider dualism of explanations that have characterised western thought since the Enlightenment. Individual-society dualism often manifested in a reduction of explanation to either biological (often genetic) or social causes. Sometimes ‘both/and’ explanations also suffer form this dualism because they behave as if there is no other level of explanation, only an ‘interaction’ between biological and social factors. Genuinely social psychological explanations get squeezed out. Agency-structure dualism is the twin problem of individual-social dualism. The binary terms ‘agency’ and ‘structure’ mirror the terms ‘individual’ and ‘society’ in the following way: if individuals are seen as relatively independent of social influence, they can be theorised as agents of their own destinies. On the other hand, if social structures are overwhelmingly influential in individual action, people’s choices and desires would be irrelevant. Traditional social theory placed such emphasis on the power of social structures in governing peoples actions that this led to self determinism. A challenge for social psychology is to be able to understand the dynamic tension between desires and actions that are relatively free and ones that are heavily constrained by circumstances, rather than fall into assumptions on either side of the agency-structure binary. This interrogative theme will help us remain aware of dangers which, like individual-society dualism, have strong political and ethical implications. All of these interrogative themes are useful in evaluating social psychological research and theories. There are differences and similarities between the four perspectives on social psychology that have been defined in this essay. They all have reflexivity because the researchers are prepared to put themselves in the picture of knowledge production. They are all explicit about the way their approach is appropriate to the object of analysis. A difference between the qualitative and quantitative approach is whether the object of analysis is hidden from view. This is highlighted as an advantage of the cognitive social psychology experimental method and is also central to the free association narrative interview method which draws from the psychoanalytic concept of unconscious dynamics. Phenomenological psychology, whose object of analysis is conscious experience, aims to elaborate qualities previously hidden form view through rich description. In contrast, discourse analysis is not interested in underlying significance but in words. Whereas discourse analysis is interested in emotion terms, social psychoanalysis looks for emotions themselves , while the object of phenomenological analysis is the emotions that people are aware of and can therefore describe. Social psychoanalysis and the experimental method look for causes of actions, but discourse analysis rejects this, and phenomenology focuses on experience rather than its causes or motives. Control of the research setting is the issue that most clearly differentiates quantitative and qualitative approaches. Experimental psychology ‘models’ social processes in order to control them. The other three approaches seek ecological validity by researching in social settings. Within the qualitative approaches there are differences in emphasis. Discourse analysts prefer to collect discourse as it can be found, although they also conduct interviews. The social psychoanalytical and phenomenological approaches rely in eliciting experience, often grounded in a narrative of actual events. Narrative is becoming an overarching theme in qualitative social psychology, partly because of the critique of unstructured interview techniques on the grounds that they dictate the terms in which participants can give their accounts. When interviews are relatively unstructured, participants have a tendency to give accounts in narrative form. It is useful to compare the different methodological approaches in relation to their analysis of The Guardian’s story published on 24 May 2004 about an Iraqi family, a mother an her children. The woman’s husband ( the children’s father) had died in detention during the American/British invasion and the newspaper quoted the woman’s response – ‘I will always hate you people’. The Cognitive Social Psychology Experimental approach outlined by Russell Spears states that experimental evidence is the lifeblood of psychology and experiments provide the control to assess causal relations and patterns among variables that may not be apparent to the naked eye. Whist acknowledging that we cannot reproduce in the lab the conditions that foster this kind of hatred, we can model some of the proposed processes and test implications of theories. The psychoanalytical perspective referred to by Wendy Hollway is a clinical rather than a research method. Free association interviewing is used to reach beyond the structured interviewing that dominates qualitative research and risks constraining interviewees with assumptions provided by questions. Derek Edwards discussion of discursive social psychology proposes looking at the report and how the words and, descriptions and accounts are assembled and put to work. He focuses on the reports themselves , how they provide for causal explanations, invoke psychological states and build implications for politics and policy. This approach examines how people deploy commonsense psychological ideas. Darren Langridge explores phenomenological social psychology as a descriptive enterprise. Data is collected though first person written accounts or interviews. The rush towards explanation is avoided. The aim is to identify structural qualities that are invariant across the experience, as well as those that are more idiosyncratic, focusing on the reasons but not the causes behind the phenomena in the hope of providing new insights that may enable us to effect change. In conclusion, there are similarities and differences between the methodologies used to explore the four perspectives in social psychology that have been discussed. Each approach has its strengths and weaknesses, and all can contribute to the continuing development of theories and approaches within social psychology. References Milgram, S ( 1974) Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View, London, Tavistock. Spears , R. , Hollway, W. and Edwards, D. (2005) ‘Three views on hate’, The Psychologist, vol 18, no 9, September, pp. 844-7. Social Psychology Matters Book 1, Chapter 2 by Wendy Hollway, Book 2, Chapter 1 (Introductions) – Open University Press. DVD 1 Social Psychology : Critical Perspectives on Self and Others.

Role of Women in the Book Persepolis Essay - 895 Words

Role of Women in Persepolis In the book, â€Å"The Complete Persepolis† written by Marjane Satrapi every woman had a prescribed role. The role of Marji’s maid was to show that social class differences do exist and to show what happens within these social class differences. Marji’s mother’s role was to support Marji and make sure that she was well off, while her grandmother’s role was also to support her and give her words of wisdom. Her school teachers’ role was to make sure that the female children, attending the school, wore their veils, while the guardians of the revolution’s role were to arrest females that were improperly veiled. The younger Marji’s role was to show us how the Iranian Revolution/ the mandatory wearing of the veil affected†¦show more content†¦Because of these things the guardians were going to take her in, but Marji rebelled against that by crying her eyes out and also by lying. There are many ways in which Iranian cultural expectations are different from the western cultural expectations. They are different in regards to citizens’ rights and gender norms. According to Farhad Kazemi article in the Iran Chamber Society, an important difference between the Islamic world and the West in regard to citizenship rights is how these rights are formally categorized. In the West, non-gender-based citizenship is the norm, even though in practice, full and complete citizenship rights and equality are not always the case. In the Islamic world, however, the norm is to grant different categories of people different citizenship rights. Hence, women and religious minorities enjoy a different category of citizenship rights than males and Muslims. The picture on the next page illustrates how in the Islamic world, the norm is to grant different categories of people different citizenship rights. This is a picture of Marji and her family eat at one table and her maid eating at another. Because her maid is on a lower class level than Marji and her family, she didn’t had the right or may I say she couldn’t eat on the same table as them. Because of this she didn’t have the same amount of equality and citizenship rights as Marji and her family. Relating to gender norms, Iranians view womens hair as erotic,Show MoreRelatedThe Complete Persepolis By Marjane Satrapi1552 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout The Complete Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi the idea of inequality is introduced through several examples. Marjane Satrapi uses the title to comment on inequality in all aspects of Marjane’s life, including gender, religious, economic, and racial status. 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